How the world regulates online speech

Canada Criminal Code makes public incitement of hatred and advocating genocide criminal offences, and these apply to online speech. A 2024 Online Harms bill (C-63) would have added platform duties and new hate-crime offences, but it died in Parliament in early 2025.

1. Feb 2024 Canada introduced the Online Harms Act (Bill C-63), proposing platform duties and expanded hate-crime offences. justice.gc.ca
2. Jan 2025 Bill C-63 died when Parliament was dissolved, leaving the existing Criminal Code hate-propaganda offences as the framework. canada.ca

Cuba Decree-Law 35 and Resolution 105, issued after the July 2021 protests, treat online content such as false news, criticism that harms the country's prestige, or calls to protest as cybersecurity incidents, and direct the state telecom monopoly to suspend offending users. A 2022 Penal Code added explicit penalties for online speech.

1. Aug 2021 Cuba issued Decree-Law 35 and Resolution 105, treating online dissent as cybersecurity incidents and letting the state telecom suspend users. hrw.org
2. May 2022 A new Penal Code added explicit penalties for online speech, including using social networks to organize protests. freedomhouse.org

During its 2022 state of emergency, El Salvador amended the Penal Code to criminalize creating, reproducing, or transmitting any content that relays or alludes to gang messages, with ten to fifteen years in prison, and it explicitly covers radio, television, print, and digital media that reproduce statements attributed to gangs. Press groups condemned it as a gag law that effectively bans independent reporting on gangs.

1. Mar 2022 A state of emergency is declared after a surge in gang killings. Source
2. Apr 2022 The Penal Code is amended to punish reproducing gang messages with ten to fifteen years, covering the media. Source
3. Apr 2022 Press groups condemn the reform as a gag law banning reporting on gangs. Source
4. Apr 2022 The US State Department issues a statement of concern about censoring journalists. Source

Jamaica Cybercrimes Act of 2015 created the offence of using a computer for malicious communication in Section 9, covering data that is obscene, threatening, or menacing sent with intent to harass, punishable by a heavy fine or up to fifteen years in prison. Critics argue it revives criminal libel, which Jamaica abolished in 2013, through the back door. In 2017 an activist who named alleged sexual predators online was charged under the section, sparking a national free-expression debate.

1. 2013 Jamaica abolishes criminal libel in the Defamation Act. Source
2. Jun 2015 The Cybercrimes Act creates the Section 9 malicious-communication offence with penalties up to fifteen years. Source
3. Mar 2017 A Tambourine Army co-founder is charged under Section 9 over social-media posts, prompting a free-expression debate. Source

Nicaragua Special Cybercrime Law, Law 1042, known as the gag law, makes it a crime to publish or spread information online that the government deems false or distorted and that causes alarm, fear, or anxiety. Since taking effect in December 2020 it has been used to jail journalists, opposition figures, and ordinary users over social-media posts, including a reporter sentenced to eight years for livestreaming a religious procession on Facebook. A 2024 reform raised penalties and extended the law to Nicaraguans living abroad.

1. Oct 2020 The National Assembly passes Law 1042, quickly nicknamed the gag law by press-freedom groups. Source
2. Dec 2020 The law takes effect, criminalizing online false information that causes alarm. Source
3. Aug 2023 Journalist Victor Ticay is sentenced to eight years after livestreaming a religious procession on Facebook. Source
4. Sep 2024 A reform raises prison terms and extends the law to Nicaraguans abroad. Source

The TAKE IT DOWN Act, signed in May 2025, makes it a US federal crime to publish nonconsensual intimate images, including AI-generated deepfakes, and requires online platforms to remove flagged images within 48 hours of a valid request. Digital-rights groups warn the broad takedown system, with no counter-notice process and a tight deadline, could push platforms to over-remove lawful speech such as journalism and legal adult content.

1. May 2025 The President signed the TAKE IT DOWN Act, criminalizing nonconsensual intimate images including AI deepfakes and requiring platforms to remove them within 48 hours. congress.gov
2. May 2026 Platform notice-and-removal requirements took effect; rights groups warned the broad system could lead to over-removal of lawful speech. dwt.com

The Kids Online Safety Act is a proposed US federal law that would impose a duty of care on online platforms to prevent harms to minors such as content promoting suicide, eating disorders, and sexual exploitation. It passed the Senate 91-3 in 2024 but stalled in the House over First Amendment concerns, and critics including the ACLU and EFF warn it could push platforms to over-remove lawful speech. It remained stalled in both chambers as of 2026.

1. Jul 2024 KOSA passed the US Senate 91-3 but stalled in the House over First Amendment and censorship concerns. er.educause.edu
2. May 2025 Senators reintroduced KOSA with a viewpoint-neutrality clause meant to address free-speech objections. er.educause.edu
3. Mar 2026 A House version folded KOSA into a broader bill that dropped its core duty of care, while KOSA stayed stalled in the Senate. rollcall.com

Bolivia's interim government issued emergency decrees in 2020 (Supreme Decrees 4200 and 4231) that criminalized spreading COVID-19 disinformation or content that generated uncertainty, punishable by one to ten years in prison. Dozens of people were arrested before the government revoked the decrees within days, following criticism from the UN and rights groups.

1. Mar 2020 Bolivia's interim government issued decrees criminalizing COVID disinformation, with one to ten years in prison. cpj.org
2. May 2020 A broader decree was issued and then revoked within days after criticism from the UN and rights groups. monitor.civicus.org

Brazil long-debated Fake News Bill (PL 2630) stalled in Congress, but in June 2025 the Supreme Court replaced the old safe harbor in the Marco Civil. Platforms can now be held liable for serious illegal content such as incitement, hate speech, and grave disinformation even without a prior court order, under a systemic-failure standard.

1. Jun 2014 Brazil enacted the Marco Civil, shielding platforms from liability for user content absent a court order. globalnetworkinitiative.org
2. May 2023 The Fake News Bill (PL 2630) stalled in Congress without passing. globalnetworkinitiative.org
3. Jun 2025 The Supreme Court struck down the court-order-only safe harbor, making platforms liable for serious illegal content even without a prior order. brasildefato.com.br

Colombia criminalizes defamation under Penal Code articles 220 and 221, covering insult (injuria) and false accusation of a crime (calumnia), with prison terms reaching several years and heavier penalties when statements are made through social media or other mass communication. The Constitutional Court upheld these custodial penalties in 2023, and press-freedom groups say they chill journalism and enable lawsuits against critics.

1. Jul 2000 Colombia's Penal Code criminalized insult and false accusation, with higher penalties when committed through social media or mass communication. mediadefence.org
2. Oct 2023 The Constitutional Court upheld the custodial sentences for criminal defamation against a challenge by press-freedom groups. globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu

Ecuador 2013 Organic Communications Law, widely called the Ley Mordaza or Gag Law, created a state regulator (SUPERCOM) that fined and sanctioned media over editorial content and a vague media-lynching offence, making it one of Latin America's most repressive media laws. Reforms in 2019 abolished SUPERCOM and stripped out the most repressive provisions, and a 2022 reform affirmed the state would not regulate media content.

1. Jun 2013 Ecuador passed the Organic Communications Law, dubbed the Gag Law, creating a regulator that fined and sanctioned media over editorial content. cpj.org
2. Feb 2019 Reforms abolished SUPERCOM and removed the most repressive provisions, including the media-lynching offence. freedomhouse.org
3. Nov 2022 A further reform affirmed the state would not regulate media content and added online free-expression guarantees. freedomhouse.org

Peru criminalizes defamation under its Penal Code, and journalists are regularly convicted, usually with suspended sentences, in cases often brought by public officials to retaliate against reporting. In 2025 Congress advanced a gag-law bill that would raise defamation sentences to as much as five years and add a vague privacy offence, which press-freedom groups say would deepen self-censorship.

1. Apr 1991 Peru's Penal Code criminalized defamation; journalists are regularly convicted, usually with suspended sentences. freedomhouse.org
2. Mar 2025 Congress approved on first reading a gag-law bill that would raise defamation sentences to up to five years and add a vague privacy offence. rsf.org

Venezuela 2017 Law Against Hatred punishes online incitement of hatred with up to 20 years in prison and requires platforms to remove hate speech within six hours or face fines, while letting authorities block sites. It has been used to arrest government critics.

1. Nov 2017 Venezuela enacted the Law Against Hatred, with up to 20 years prison for online incitement and a six-hour takedown duty. aljazeera.com
2. Apr 2024 Authorities advanced a Law against Fascism to criminalize more categories of online messages, widening the crackdown on dissent. freedomhouse.org

After the disputed 2020 election, Belarus turned its extremism laws against online speech. Authorities label independent outlets and Telegram channels extremist, block hundreds of sites, and treat sharing or even subscribing to that content as a crime, with prosecution warnings of up to seven years in prison.

1. Aug 2020 After the disputed election, Belarus began blocking independent media and opposition sites en masse. freedomhouse.org
2. Mar 2021 Media-law changes let the government block mirror sites of independent outlets. freedomhouse.org
3. Oct 2021 Authorities treated subscribers to extremist-labeled Telegram channels as members of an extremist group, warning of prison terms up to seven years. rferl.org

Bulgaria amended its education law in August 2024 to ban the propaganda, promotion, or incitement of LGBTQ topics in schools. Supporters describe it as shielding minors; rights groups say it censors teachers and erases LGBTQ students. The bill passed its first and second readings in a single sitting and was signed within a week.

1. Aug 2024 Bulgaria enacted the school LGBTQ-propaganda ban after a rapid two-reading passage. context.news

The Digital Services Act sets EU-wide rules requiring platforms to remove illegal content through notice-and-action systems, explain moderation decisions, and let the largest platforms be audited for systemic risks, enforced by the European Commission with heavy fines. It adds appeal rights, but critics warn it can push platforms toward over-removal.

1. Oct 2022 The EU adopted the Digital Services Act. digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu
2. Aug 2023 The strictest rules took effect for very large platforms and search engines. digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu
3. Feb 2024 The DSA began applying to nearly all online platforms operating in the EU. digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu

EU Child Sexual Abuse Regulation, nicknamed Chat Control by critics, is a proposed law that would require messaging and hosting platforms to detect and report child sexual abuse material, potentially through scanning of private messages that critics say would break end-to-end encryption. It remains under negotiation, with the Council having dropped mandatory scanning in favour of codifying voluntary scanning.

1. May 2022 The European Commission proposed the Child Sexual Abuse Regulation, which critics dubbed Chat Control over its message-scanning provisions. edri.org
2. Nov 2025 The Council adopted a negotiating position that dropped mandatory scanning in favour of codifying voluntary scanning, opening trilogue talks with Parliament. consilium.europa.eu
3. Mar 2026 Parliament rejected extending the temporary voluntary-scanning rules, which expired in April, while talks on the permanent regulation continued. edri.org

The European Commission has proposed adding all forms of hate speech and hate crime -- based on race, religion, gender, or sexuality -- to the list of EU crimes under Article 83 of the EU treaties, which would let the EU set minimum criminal rules across all member states. Supporters say a common standard would better protect minorities; critics warn an EU-wide hate-speech crime could broaden the criminalization of expression. Adoption requires unanimous Council agreement and Parliament consent, and it has stalled since the 2021 proposal.

1. Sep 2020 Commission President von der Leyen announced an initiative to add hate speech and hate crime to the EU crimes list. europarl.europa.eu
2. Dec 2021 The Commission formally invited the Council to designate hate speech and hate crime as an EU crime; it still awaits unanimous agreement. commission.europa.eu

France 2020 Avia law would have forced platforms to remove flagged hateful content within 24 hours under heavy fines. The Constitutional Council struck down most of it that year as a disproportionate restriction on freedom of expression.

France apology-for-terrorism offence punishes publicly praising or favorably presenting terrorism, with up to five years in prison offline and seven years for statements made online, plus heavy fines. Moved from the old press law into the Penal Code by the November 2014 counter-terrorism law, it has been applied to thousands of cases, many of them social-media posts. Convictions jumped from a handful per year before 2014 into the hundreds afterward, and rights groups including Human Rights Watch and the Council of Europe warn that it criminalizes controversial but peaceful speech rather than genuine incitement.

1. Jun 1881 Apology for terrorism first exists under the French press law, with strong procedural safeguards and rare prosecutions. Source
2. Nov 2014 The Cazeneuve counter-terrorism law moves the offence into the Penal Code as Article 421-2-5, with harsher penalties for online speech. Source
3. 2015 After the Charlie Hebdo attacks prosecutors are told to act with vigor, and convictions surge into the hundreds, dozens of them for online posts. Source
4. Oct 2023 Investigations spike again after a justice-ministry directive on statements about the Israel-Gaza conflict. Source

The Network Enforcement Act (NetzDG) requires platforms with over two million users to remove clearly illegal content within 24 hours and all illegal content within seven days, with fines up to 50 million euros. Critics say it pushes platforms to over-remove lawful speech, and it has been copied by governments worldwide.

1. Jun 2017 Germany passed the Network Enforcement Act (NetzDG). eff.org
2. Jan 2018 The law took full effect, requiring fast removal of illegal content under threat of heavy fines. itif.org
3. Jun 2021 Germany amended the law to add appeals procedures and expanded reporting duties. itif.org

Section 130 of the German Criminal Code makes incitement to hatred a crime punishable by up to five years in prison. It covers inciting hatred or violence against national, racial, religious, or ethnic groups, and assaulting human dignity by insulting or defaming them, with aggravated treatment for Holocaust denial. German courts claim jurisdiction over online posts whenever the content can be reached from inside Germany, even if it was posted abroad, and prosecutors regularly bring charges over social-media posts. Unlike the NetzDG takedown duty, this offence targets the speaker rather than the platform.

1. Jun 1871 The offence enters the unified German criminal code, originally aimed at incitement to class conflict. Source
2. Jun 1960 Redrafted after the Second World War and a wave of antisemitic incidents to criminalize incitement against ethnic, national, and religious groups. Source
3. 2007 Holocaust denier Ernst Zundel is convicted in Mannheim over material published online from abroad, an early online-jurisdiction case. Source
4. 2021 Later amendments extend reporting duties and broaden the groups the provision protects. Source

Hungary's 2021 child-protection law restricts the depiction or promotion of homosexuality and gender reassignment in media and education accessible to minors, and a 2025 assembly-law amendment lets police ban gatherings, including Pride, that display such content. Supporters frame it as protecting children; opponents call it state censorship of LGBTQ expression. In April 2026 the EU Court of Justice ruled the 2021 law violates EU treaties, though it remained in force in Hungary.

1. Jun 2021 Hungary adopted the child-protection law restricting LGBTQ content in media and schools. context.news
2. Mar 2025 Parliament amended the assembly law to allow banning Pride and similar gatherings. en.wikipedia.org
3. Apr 2026 The EU Court of Justice ruled the 2021 law breaches Article 2 of the EU treaties. ilga-europe.org

Ireland proposed new criminal offences for online incitement to hatred in its 2022 hate-offences bill. After free-speech criticism and a lack of political consensus, the government dropped the incitement-to-hatred provisions in 2024 and proceeded only with hate-crime sentencing rules. The existing 1989 incitement law remains in force.

1. Apr 2023 The hate-offences bill, including new online incitement-to-hatred offences, passed the Dail. irishtimes.com
2. Oct 2024 The government removed the incitement-to-hatred provisions, and the remaining bill passed as a hate-crime law. oireachtas.ie

An Italian bill approved by the Senate Constitutional Affairs Committee in early 2026 would incorporate the IHRA definition of antisemitism into law and let authorities ban rallies that promote antisemitism. Supporters say it would curb hateful and dangerous gatherings; critics warn that using the IHRA definition as a legal basis to prohibit assemblies could capture protected political speech about Israel. It still faces an amendments phase and full votes in both chambers.

1. Jan 2026 Senator Massimiliano Romeo presented the draft bill incorporating the IHRA definition. en.wikipedia.org
2. Feb 2026 The Senate Constitutional Affairs Committee approved the draft text, sending it to an amendments phase. en.wikipedia.org

Russia gay-propaganda ban bars any positive or neutral portrayal of what it calls non-traditional sexual relations across all media, including books, films, video games, and the internet. A 2013 version applied only to material aimed at minors and was rarely enforced. A December 2022 expansion extended it to all ages and all media, with fines up to roughly 5 million rubles for organizations and jail or deportation for foreigners. Since the expansion the state censor has blocked LGBT-themed web pages, bloggers have deleted posts and gone private, and convictions rose sharply, making it a viewpoint-based censorship regime that international bodies call discriminatory.

1. Jun 2013 The original gay-propaganda law passes, limited to material aimed at minors and largely dormant in practice. Source
2. Dec 2022 Putin signs an expansion covering all ages and all media, including online content. Source
3. 2023 Convictions and fines surge while the state censor blocks LGBT-themed web pages and creators self-censor. Source

Russia pairs a vast website-blocking system run by Roskomnadzor with criminal laws against online speech. A March 2022 law made spreading knowingly false information about the military punishable by up to 15 years in prison, driving independent media out and leading to thousands of prosecutions.

1. Nov 2019 Russia adopted the sovereign internet law alongside earlier fake-news and disrespect laws expanding control over online speech. freedomhouse.org
2. Mar 2022 Russia criminalized knowingly false information about the armed forces, with penalties up to 15 years in prison. hrw.org

The UK Crime and Policing Act 2026 strengthened the law against anti-Semitic, Islamophobic, and anti-LGBTQ abuse -- equalizing hate-crime penalties across protected characteristics -- gave police new powers over protests near places of worship, and created an offence of climbing certain war memorials. Supporters say it closes gaps in protection; free-speech groups warn the protest and abuse provisions could chill lawful expression. A separate government working group is still developing a non-statutory definition of anti-Muslim hatred.

1. Mar 2025 The Home Secretary announced amendments to the Crime and Policing Bill targeting anti-Semitic and Islamophobic abuse and protests near places of worship. equalityhumanrights.com
2. Apr 2026 The Crime and Policing Bill received Royal Assent, equalizing penalties for anti-LGBTQ hate crime alongside the abuse and protest provisions. en.wikipedia.org

Scotland Hate Crime and Public Order Act 2021, in force since April 2024, created offences of stirring up hatred against groups defined by age, disability, religion, sexual orientation, transgender identity, or sex characteristics, applying to online and in-person conduct. Prosecution requires behaviour that is both threatening or abusive and intended to stir up hatred, with a free-expression defence built in. Its rollout drew thousands of public complaints, most of which police judged not to be crimes.

1. Mar 2021 The Scottish Parliament passed the Hate Crime and Public Order Act, consolidating hate-crime law and adding stirring-up-hatred offences. loc.gov
2. Apr 2024 The Act came into force, extending stirring-up-hatred offences to online and in-person conduct amid significant free-speech debate. gov.scot

The UK Online Safety Act 2023 places duties on platforms to remove illegal content and shield users from certain harmful material, enforced by Ofcom with large fines. Supporters cite child-safety gains, while critics warn it pressures platforms toward over-removal of lawful speech.

UK Communications Act 2003 (section 127) and the Malicious Communications Act 1988 criminalize sending grossly offensive, indecent, obscene, or menacing messages over public networks, including social-media posts. Police made over 12,000 arrests under these offences in 2023, around 30 a day, though fewer than one in ten led to a conviction, drawing free-speech concerns.

1. Jul 2003 The Communications Act 2003 made it an offence to send grossly offensive, indecent, obscene, or menacing messages over a public network, alongside the older Malicious Communications Act 1988. cps.gov.uk
2. Jan 2024 The Online Safety Act added new false and threatening communications offences, while the grossly-offensive provisions remained in force. cps.gov.uk
3. Apr 2025 Reporting showed police were making around 30 arrests a day under these communications offences, prompting free-speech concerns. lordslibrary.parliament.uk

Algeria added Article 196 bis to the Penal Code in 2020, criminalizing the dissemination of false or slanderous news likely to undermine public security or order, with one to three years in prison, doubled for a repeat offence and up to five years during a health lockdown or catastrophe. The vague wording gives wide discretion and has been used alongside other charges to prosecute journalists, activists, and bloggers, while several news sites have been blocked.

1. Apr 2020 Law 20-06 amends the Penal Code, adding Article 196 bis on disseminating false news. Source
2. Apr 2020 Authorities block the news sites Maghreb Emergent, Radio M, and Interlignes. Source
3. Dec 2022 Activist Slimane Bouhafs is sentenced partly under Article 196 bis for online posts. Source
4. Apr 2024 Further penal code amendments widen speech-related offences. Source

Egypt 2018 Cybercrime Law lets prosecutors and regulators block websites deemed a threat to national security or the economy and jails people who run or even visit banned sites. A companion media law placed social-media accounts with large followings under state media supervision.

1. Aug 2018 Egypt enacted the Cybercrime Law, authorizing website blocking and prison terms for running or visiting banned sites. loc.gov
2. Sep 2018 A media regulation law placed social-media accounts with 5,000 or more followers under the state media regulator. freedomhouse.org

Ethiopia 2020 Hate Speech and Disinformation Proclamation criminalizes online hate speech and false information, with up to three years in prison, or five if violence follows, and harsher penalties for accounts with large followings. It also requires platforms to remove flagged content within 24 hours.

1. Mar 2020 Ethiopia enacted the Hate Speech and Disinformation Proclamation, criminalizing online hate speech and false information. aljazeera.com
2. Apr 2020 Authorities began charging journalists under the law over their social-media posts. cipesa.org

Ghana's Human Sexual Rights and Family Values bill would toughen the colonial-era ban on gay sex and criminalize the promotion, advocacy, or funding of LGBTQ activities, reaching public speech and association. Supporters call it a defense of cultural values; rights groups warn it criminalizes ordinary speech and support. Parliament passed an earlier version in 2024, and the president signaled he could sign a revived bill in 2026.

1. 2024 Ghana's Parliament passed an earlier version of the Family Values bill, which was not signed into law. 76crimes.com
2. 2026 The president signaled willingness to sign a revived version of the bill. context.news

Kenya 2018 Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act made publishing false or misleading information online a crime, and the offences were used to arrest bloggers and journalists. The Court of Appeal struck down those false-publication sections as unconstitutionally vague in March 2026, though most of the broader Act stands.

1. May 2018 Kenya enacted the Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act, criminalizing publication of false or misleading information online. nation.africa
2. Feb 2020 The High Court upheld the Act, including the false-publication offences. nation.africa
3. Mar 2026 The Court of Appeal struck down the false-publication sections as unconstitutionally vague. icj-kenya.org

Nigeria 2022 NITDA Code of Practice requires platforms with over 100,000 local users to take down content an authorized government agency deems unlawful within 24 hours, disclose user identities on court order, file compliance reports, and incorporate locally. Unlawful content is loosely defined and platforms get no chance to verify or appeal.

1. Jun 2021 Nigeria blocked Twitter after it removed a presidential post, cutting off users for seven months. freedomhouse.org
2. Sep 2022 The NITDA Code of Practice took effect, with 24-hour government-ordered takedowns and local-registration duties. itif.org

Tanzania Cybercrimes Act of 2015 criminalizes publishing false, deceptive, or misleading information online, and has been used to arrest and convict people over social-media posts, including for insulting the president. A 2020 set of Online Content Regulations layered on licensing and fees for bloggers and a two-hour takedown rule. Rights groups say the vague false-information offence drives heavy self-censorship.

1. Apr 2015 The Cybercrimes Act is signed into law, criminalizing publication of false or misleading information online. Source
2. Jul 2020 New Online Content Regulations add blogger licensing, fees, and a two-hour takedown deadline. Source
3. Mar 2021 People are arrested for sharing false information about President Magufuli health on social media. Source
4. Oct 2022 A ruling-party youth member is sentenced to seven years for defaming the president on WhatsApp. Source

Tunisia Decree-Law 54 of 2022 criminalizes producing or spreading false news and rumours online, with up to five years in prison and double that when a public official is the target. Since President Kais Saied issued it, dozens of journalists, lawyers, and opposition figures have been investigated or jailed over their public criticism.

1. Sep 2022 Tunisia issued Decree-Law 54, criminalizing online false news with up to five years prison, doubled when the target is a public official. hrw.org
2. Dec 2023 Courts handed down the first sentences under the decree against opposition figures. hrw.org
3. May 2024 Authorities escalated prosecutions, jailing journalists and media figures ahead of the presidential election. amnesty.org

Uganda 2022 amendment to the Computer Misuse Act criminalized offensive communication, malicious information, hate speech, and unsolicited online messages, and was used to arrest and jail journalists, activists, and TikTokers for posts mocking or criticizing President Museveni and his family. In March 2026 the Constitutional Court struck the amendment down in its entirety, along with criminal libel in the Penal Code, ruling it vague, overly broad, and passed without a proper parliamentary quorum.

1. 2011 The original Computer Misuse Act is enacted. Source
2. Oct 2022 President Museveni signs the amendment criminalizing offensive and malicious online communication. Source
3. 2024 Activists and content creators are charged under the law for posts about the president and first family. Source
4. Mar 2026 The Constitutional Court strikes down the 2022 amendment in full and voids criminal libel. Source

Zambia Cyber Crimes Act of 2025, signed by President Hichilema, criminalizes publishing false information that causes public ridicule or damage to reputation and online communication that causes emotional distress, while a companion Cyber Security Act puts a monitoring agency under the Office of the President and mandates real-time interception. It replaced a 2021 law passed before that year elections. The Law Association of Zambia has challenged the new law in the High Court.

1. Mar 2021 The original Cyber Security and Cyber Crimes Act is passed under President Lungu before the general elections. Source
2. Apr 2024 A comedian is arrested over satirical memes mocking officials under the earlier law. Source
3. Apr 2025 President Hichilema signs the 2025 Cyber Crimes and Cyber Security Acts, keeping broad false-information and surveillance provisions. Source
4. Jul 2025 The Law Association of Zambia files a High Court challenge to the new law. Source

Zimbabwe Cyber and Data Protection Act of 2021 amended the criminal code to punish sending false data messages and online communications meant to harm, with prison terms reaching five to ten years. Media and rights groups say the false-message offence revives criminal defamation, which Zimbabwe courts struck down in 2014, and it has been used against journalists and activists charged with inciting violence over online posts. The law also created a monitoring centre in the Office of the President.

1. May 2020 The measure is gazetted as the Cybersecurity and Data Protection Bill. Source
2. Dec 2021 Enacted as the Data Protection Act, amending the criminal code to punish false data messages. Source
3. Mar 2022 Republished under the title Cyber and Data Protection Act. Source
4. 2024 Journalists and activists are charged over online posts said to incite violence. Source

Bangladesh Cyber Security Act 2023, which replaced the heavily criticized Digital Security Act, kept most of its provisions criminalizing online speech such as defamation and false information. After a 2024 change of government, a 2025 Cyber Security Ordinance removed or amended many of those speech offences and authorities moved to withdraw pending speech cases.

1. Oct 2018 Bangladesh enacted the Digital Security Act, under which over 7,000 cases were filed against journalists, activists, and critics. amnesty.org
2. Sep 2023 The Cyber Security Act replaced the Digital Security Act but retained most of its speech-criminalizing provisions. amnesty.org
3. 2025 After a change of government, a Cyber Security Ordinance removed or amended many speech offences and authorities moved to drop pending speech cases. cfj.org

Cambodia added a lese-majeste offence to the Criminal Code in 2018, making it a crime to insult, defame, or threaten the King, punishable by one to five years in prison, and it applies to online posts and to media that carry the content. Authorities have used it together with defamation and incitement charges to jail people for Facebook posts and livestreams criticizing the monarchy or the government. A long-pending draft Cybercrime Law would further criminalize online false information.

1. Feb 2018 Parliament adds the lese-majeste offence (Article 437) to the Criminal Code. Source
2. May 2018 The Ministry of Information warns that reposting content insulting the King is an offence. Source
3. Nov 2023 A man is sentenced to three years partly for lese-majeste over a Facebook Live broadcast. Source
4. 2024 A draft Cybercrime Law advances that would criminalize online false information and insults. Source

China runs the world most extensive online censorship system. The Great Firewall blocks foreign platforms such as Google, Facebook, and X and filters content, while the 2017 Cybersecurity Law compels platforms to monitor and remove illegal content, store data locally, and tie accounts to real identities.

1. Jun 2017 China Cybersecurity Law took effect, codifying content controls, data localization, and real-name rules. eff.org
2. Mar 2020 New ecosystem-governance rules required platforms to detect and remove illegal and negative content. en.wikipedia.org
3. Mar 2022 Algorithm rules required platforms to promote approved content and suppress dissenting narratives. en.wikipedia.org

Georgia adopted a broad law in October 2024 restricting so-called LGBTQ propaganda, limiting depictions of same-sex relationships and gender identity in media, education, and public gatherings. Backers cast it as protecting family values; critics and the EU say it curtails free expression and assembly for LGBTQ people and their allies.

1. Oct 2024 Georgia enacted a wide-ranging LGBTQ-propaganda ban covering media, schools, and assemblies. context.news

India 2021 IT Rules require online intermediaries to remove a broad range of content quickly on government or court order, appoint local compliance officers, and enable tracing of message originators, obligations critics say chill speech and weaken encryption.

Section 66A of the Information Technology Act criminalized sending grossly offensive or menacing messages online, carrying up to three years in jail. India Supreme Court struck it down on 24 March 2015 in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, calling it unconstitutionally vague and a chilling restriction on free expression. The ruling is a landmark online free-speech victory, but police kept filing cases for years afterward, and the Court had to issue repeated orders to stop prosecutions under a law that no longer exists.

1. 2009 Section 66A is added to the IT Act by the 2008 amendment, written broadly enough to cover offensive online speech. Source
2. Mar 2015 The Supreme Court strikes it down as void from the start in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India. Source
3. Jul 2021 Civil-liberties groups return to court after data shows more cases filed under the struck law than during its actual life. Source
4. Oct 2022 The Supreme Court issues fresh directions ordering states to delete pending cases and stop registering new ones. Source

Indonesia Ministerial Regulation 5 (MR5) makes private platforms register with the government and remove prohibited content within 24 hours, or 4 hours for urgent requests, or face blocking. Prohibited content is vaguely defined to include material causing public anxiety, and platforms must ensure their systems do not host it.

1. Nov 2020 Indonesia promulgated MR5, requiring platform registration and fast takedowns of prohibited content. eff.org
2. Jun 2021 Rights groups urged repeal, warning the broad rules force platforms to police lawful speech. hrw.org

Iran runs one of the most restrictive online environments in the world. The Computer Crimes Law and penal-code filtering rules let a state committee block content, and most major foreign platforms are filtered. Instagram and WhatsApp, the last widely used international apps, were blocked during the 2022 Woman, Life, Freedom protests.

1. Jan 2010 Iran ratified the Computer Crimes Law, the legal basis for filtering and criminalizing online content. en.wikipedia.org
2. Apr 2018 Telegram was permanently blocked, removing one of the country most used platforms. en.wikipedia.org
3. Sep 2022 Instagram and WhatsApp were blocked amid the Woman, Life, Freedom protests, leaving nearly all foreign platforms filtered. freedomhouse.org

Japan Information Distribution Platform Act, which amended the 2001 provider-liability law in 2024, requires large platforms to act swiftly on online defamation claims and to publish their content-removal criteria. Criminal defamation and a strengthened insult offence under the Penal Code also apply to online speech.

1. Oct 2022 Lawmakers revised the provider-liability law to make it easier to identify anonymous users who post defamation. freedomhouse.org
2. May 2024 Parliament passed the Information Distribution Platform Act, requiring large platforms to remove online defamation promptly and disclose their removal criteria. monitor.civicus.org

Jordan Cybercrime Law No. 17 of 2023 replaced the 2015 law and criminalized vague offences including spreading fake news, character assassination, provoking strife, threatening societal peace, and contempt for religions, with prison terms and heavy fines. Prosecutors can act without a complaint when the target is a state body. Amnesty International says hundreds were charged in the first year, including journalists, for posts criticizing the authorities or expressing pro-Palestinian views.

1. Jul 2023 Parliament passes the bill in under a month despite objections from rights groups and press bodies. Source
2. Aug 2023 King Abdullah II ratifies the law. Source
3. Sep 2023 The law takes effect and is quickly used against pro-Palestinian and critical posts. Source
4. Jun 2024 Journalist Hiba Abu Taha is sentenced to one year in prison under the law. Source

A Kazakh law banning LGBTQ propaganda took effect on 1 January 2026, restricting content seen as promoting non-traditional sexual relations, particularly to minors. Authorities present it as child protection; rights monitors group it with the Russia-style propaganda bans spreading across the region.

1. Jan 2026 The LGBTQ-propaganda ban came into force. context.news

After the February 2021 coup, the Myanmar military inserted Section 505A into the Penal Code, criminalizing comments that cause fear or spread false news or agitate against government employees, punishable by up to three years, and amended the Electronic Transactions Law to criminalize online misinformation and disinformation. Free Expression Myanmar has documented thousands of people charged under Penal Code 505 and 505A, including scores of journalists, and the offences were made non-bailable and subject to warrantless arrest.

1. Feb 2021 The junta adds Penal Code 505A and amends the Electronic Transactions Law to criminalize online dissent and false news. Source
2. Feb 2022 The first journalists are sentenced to prison under Section 505A. Source
3. Jan 2025 The junta adopts a Cyber Security Law tightening control over online expression further. Source

A proposed Pakistani law, the Prohibition of Obscenity and Vulgarity on Digital Media Bill 2025, would broadly define prohibited content to include sexual conversation, mocking hijab or purdah, ridiculing religious figures, and violating the ideology of Pakistan, with 24-hour blocking duties and fines up to 100 million rupees. Critics warn the vague morality and religion clauses could be used to silence dissent and journalism.

1. Aug 2025 The Prohibition of Obscenity and Vulgarity on Digital Media Bill was introduced for consideration in the National Assembly. tribune.com.pk

Pakistan 2025 amendment to its cybercrime law (PECA) created a criminal offense for spreading false or fake information likely to cause fear, panic, or unrest, punishable by up to three years in prison and a fine of 2,000,000 rupees. It also set up a new regulator with power to order removal or blocking of content and to make platforms register.

1. Aug 2016 Pakistan enacted the Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA). hrw.org
2. Jan 2025 An amendment criminalized fake news and created a social-media regulator with takedown and platform-registration powers. amnesty.org

Philippines Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 makes online libel a crime carrying heavier penalties than ordinary libel. The Supreme Court upheld the cyber-libel provision in 2014, and the law has been used against journalists, most prominently in the conviction of Maria Ressa of Rappler.

1. Sep 2012 The Philippines enacted the Cybercrime Prevention Act, criminalizing online libel with penalties heavier than ordinary libel. globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu
2. Feb 2014 The Supreme Court upheld the cyber-libel provision, while striking down liability for liking or sharing posts. globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu
3. Jul 2022 A court of appeal upheld the cyber-libel conviction of journalist Maria Ressa and increased the maximum sentence. ohchr.org

Saudi Arabia 2007 Anti-Cyber Crime Law criminalizes producing or sharing online material that harms public order, religious values, or public morals, with up to five years in prison. Together with counterterrorism courts, it has been used to hand down decades-long sentences for tweets and other peaceful posts.

1. Mar 2007 Saudi Arabia enacted the Anti-Cyber Crime Law, criminalizing vaguely defined online content. freedomhouse.org
2. Aug 2022 Courts sentenced social-media users to decades in prison for tweets, including 34- and 45-year terms. amnesty.org

Singapore POFMA lets government ministers order individuals and platforms to carry correction notices or take down content deemed a falsehood against the public interest, backed by fines and prison terms. Critics say it is used to silence critics and independent media.

1. May 2019 Singapore Parliament passed POFMA. pofmaoffice.gov.sg
2. Oct 2019 POFMA came into force, letting ministers issue correction and takedown directions. pofmaoffice.gov.sg
3. Mar 2026 Singapore brought its first criminal charges under POFMA against a government critic. hrw.org

South Korea Network Act and the Korea Communications Standards Commission drive heavy administrative content removal, with the commission ordering well over 100,000 page blocks and tens of thousands of deletions a year. Criminal defamation, which has no absolute truth defense and carries heavier penalties online, and the National Security Act further restrict online speech.

1. Feb 2008 The Korea Communications Standards Commission was established and began issuing large-scale online blocking and deletion orders. opennetkorea.org
2. Dec 2023 The commission chair was reported to have orchestrated dozens of complaints against a news site that had covered a presidential scandal. freedomhouse.org

Sri Lanka Online Safety Act 2024 creates a presidentially-appointed commission empowered to define prohibited statements, order content removal, and recommend prosecutions, and makes platforms liable for flagged content. It also criminalizes communicating false statements, with prison terms reaching several years.

1. Jan 2024 Sri Lanka passed the Online Safety Act, creating a commission to order content removal and criminalizing communication of false statements. amnesty.org
2. Aug 2025 After a change of government, authorities opened consultation on amending the Act amid sustained calls for repeal. csohate.org

Thailand Computer Crime Act, alongside the lese-majeste and sedition laws, is used to prosecute online critics, with prison terms reaching years for posts about the monarchy or government. Amendments expanded blocking and takedown powers and let a screening committee order removal of content deemed against public order.

1. Jun 2007 Thailand Computer Crime Act took effect, criminalizing vaguely defined online content. hrw.org
2. Jan 2017 Amendments expanded blocking and takedown powers and created a content-screening committee. hrw.org

Turkey 2020 social-media law (No. 7253) forces large platforms to appoint local representatives, store user data in Turkey, and remove content within 48 hours of an order, backed by fines and bandwidth throttling. It has been used to pressure platforms over critical and political speech.

UAE Federal Decree-Law 34 of 2021 on Combatting Rumours and Cybercrimes criminalizes spreading false information, online content seen as harming the state or its reputation, mockery of the country or its officials, and unauthorized calls for protest. Penalties run to years in prison and heavy fines, with deportation for foreign residents.

1. Sep 2021 The UAE issued Federal Decree-Law 34 on Combatting Rumours and Cybercrimes. uaelegislation.gov.ae
2. Jan 2022 The law took effect, replacing the 2012 cybercrime law with broader offences for online expression. muhami.ae

Vietnam pairs its 2018 Cybersecurity Law with Decree 147, in force since December 2024, requiring platforms to remove content the government deems illegal within 24 hours, verify user identities by phone or ID, and hand over data. Only verified accounts may post or livestream, and sharing news reports on social platforms is barred.

1. Jun 2018 Vietnam Cybersecurity Law came into force, requiring removal of anti-state content and local data storage. jurist.org
2. Dec 2024 Decree 147 took effect, adding 24-hour takedowns, account verification, and data-handover duties. hrw.org

Australia proposed giving its media regulator power to make platforms manage seriously harmful misinformation, with fines up to 5 percent of global revenue. After passing the lower house, the government withdrew the bill in November 2024 amid free-speech concerns and no path through the Senate.

1. Nov 2024 The bill passed Australia House of Representatives. usnews.com
2. Nov 2024 The government withdrew the bill, citing no pathway through the Senate. minister.infrastructure.gov.au

New Zealand Harmful Digital Communications Act 2015 lets victims of online abuse seek fast takedown and other orders through an approved agency and the District Court, which can compel content hosts to remove material and unmask anonymous posters. It also creates a criminal offence of causing harm by a digital communication, punishable by up to two years in prison.

1. Jul 2015 New Zealand passed the Harmful Digital Communications Act, creating a civil takedown regime and a criminal offence for causing harm online. eff.org
2. Mar 2022 An amendment made it an offence to post intimate visual recordings without consent, removing the need to prove harm. justice.govt.nz